Reflections on the Way to the Gallows: Rebel Women in Prewar Japan

by Mikiso Hane (Translator, Editor)

In this book, for the first time, we can hear the startling, moving voices of adventurous and rebellious Japanese women as they eloquently challenged the social repression of prewar Japan. The extraordinary women whose memoirs, recollections, and essays are presented here constitute a strong current in the history of modern Japanese life from the 1880s to the outbreak of the Pacific War.

Genres: History, Japan, Nonfiction, Feminism, Japanese Literature, Japanese History, Essays

274 pages, Paperback

First published January 1, 1988

About the author

Mikiso “Miki” Hane was a Japanese American professor of history at Knox College, where he taught for over 40 years. He wrote and translated over a dozen books, wrote many articles, and was appointed a member of the National Council on the Humanities in 1991.

Hane was born in California, lived in Japan during his teenage years, and was interned in Arizona during World War II. He taught soldiers Japanese at Yale, then studied there, where he attained a bachelors in 1952, a masters in 1953, and doctorate degree in 1957. Hane studied in Japan and Germany, then taught at the University of Toledo and studied in India before coming to Knox College in 1961. He lived in Galesburg for the rest of his life, and both wrote and taught up until his death.

Reviews

[Noreen · Rating 5 out of 5]

I'm only half through with the book and it's knocking my socks off. Page 122 Chapter 4: Fumiko Kaneko : The Road to Nihilism. In her death row interview. What is your opinion concerning the Japanese state and social system? Paraphrasing, her answer. I divide the Japanese state-social system into three levels: The first class is the royal-clan members. The second class is the government ministers and other wielders of political power. The third class in the masses in general. The royal clan lives as pitiful puppets. The third class is ignorant beyond salvation. The second class, the wielders of political power, are the ones who have the real power to persecute the weak, like myself. The second class is the real wielder of power. The first class is the formal wielder of power. Fumiko expects to be executed. We all have to die eventually. But I cannot destroy my current self so that my future self can survive.

page 119: My parents bestowed no love on me and yet sought to get whatever benefit they could out of me. Theirs is a truly selfish love, a form of greed. So I, an object of greed, fail to understand the meaning of filial piety. The so called morality is based on the relationship between the strong and the weak, and is manipulated to serve the convenience of the strong.

pg 121 I imagined the socialists were people who rose above the meaningless customs and morality of society. Even though they denounce the irrational and hypocritical aspects of society and pretend that they are indifferent to social criticism and to fame and reputation, they in fact are governed by and are concerned about the standards of the mundane society. They seek to adorn themselves with conventional ornaments and take conventional values. Just as generals take pride in the medals on their chests, socialists covet records of arrests in order to earn their bread.

I became appalled at the somnolence of the peasants, who are mired in pain but feel no pain, and the ignorance of the workers, who work diligently while they are being devoured to their bones.

Page 79 She was hardly 20, had a limited education, and formulated a heretical philosophy, refused to grovel before authority, be mealy mouthed and cower before her persecutors.

After her arrest and death sentence conviction, her death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. She tore up the reprieve. Assigned to prison in Utsunomiya, she refused to do any work. Three months later she asked to be assigned to a hemp rope weaving detail, the next day she hanged herself with a rope she had woven.

Thank you Mikiso Hane for your translations, I will be reading more of your work.

[Nick · Rating 4 out of 5]

As it happens, only one of these pieces, the one that inspired the title, was composed on the way to the gallows, but they are nonetheless heartbreaking. This is the largely untold story of Japanese women demonstrating and organizing for workers' rights in the early part of the last century, including the rise of the ultra-nationalists. These women are forthright and refreshingly opinionated, most of them rose from deep poverty, of both the rural and the urban varieties. They were variously interested by Socialist, Anarchist and Communist currents from the mainland, Russian and Korean, and Christianity, as well as native labor organization, and a number of them arrived at the conclusion that dethroning the monarchy, even assassinating the Emperor, was necessary. They came from seriously hard times: Kaneko Fumiko tells a harrowing tale of urban exploitation, Dickens without the sunshine at the end, and there are a number of entries of backbreaking farm labor. The men are generally feckless, thinking nothing of betraying or abandoning their partners. Christians fare little better, although credited for campaigns against the brothels. Kaneko's reward for prayer and service, to the point of cleaning toilets, was to have a Christian man choose his religion over his feelings for her. The male rural agitators generally exhibit a different kind of betrayal in the service of a different calling, choosing organization and prison over the needs of their families. Even Ikeda Seki's story, which includes touching, though highly censored, letters between the spouses in separate prisons, shows reveals her working, cooking and keeping house while he pursues study. The Imperial police, prosecutors and jailers show clear signs of what they would inflict on their opponents during the following war. And still, despite the brutal economic conditions, the labor, the misogyny, the persecution, these women come off as tough without sacrificing their commitment to improving conditions, and often possessed of a finely-honed and enduring anger, as when Kanno Sugako, she of the gallows, writes of her prosecutor: "If I could return as a ghost, there are so many people, beginning with the judge of the Court of Cassation, that I would like to terrify. It would be wonderful to scare them witless and make them grovel."

[Luke · Rating 4 out of 5]

"During that time, we were all under the impression that we would get promoted if we killed some socialists. I almost got myself in trouble."

-A would be assassin of Yamakawa Kikue, realist social critic, communist, and women's rights advocate

Disclaimer: if my writing seems somewhat wired in this review, I just got an especially sugary boba drink after a participating in a rather exacting interview. So, there you have it.

This is the kind of book that, when I look at it, I can't imagine anyone not being interesting in reading it. Despite this, I acknowledge that, given my interests both well intentioned and otherwise, it's no wonder that such a work is so little read in this corner of the Internet. The topic, the history, the non-white women, the not so great picture of the non-white men, the translation, the manner in which all this diverges so much from the picture of Japan built up by white Anglo types: in many ways, it's just asking to be banned. Now, it's true that the number and variety of authors means that the writing is not of a consistent quality throughout, and if you survive the brief historical introductions of each participating author, it's still very easy to get bowled over by the tens of names and end note references that riddle some of the pieces. However, every piece, however brief, has its own moments of intriguing engagement and stirring action, and three of the longer main sections are so impactful in their context, force of argument, and quality of writing that they are worth reading the entire book for alone. Coupled with the fact that the emeritus professor who put together the work is a Japanese man who lived in both Japan and the US and returned to the latter just in time to be thrown into an internment camp, you have a work with an unparalleled amount of credibility in terms of both academia and the editor's personal experience with being considered a 'dangerous element.' This isn't always the case, but I'd like to think that, in this regard, there was less incentive to sanitize history in the actions of one who has been on the other side of the fence.

Fukuda Hideko, Kanno Sugako, Kaneko Fumiko, Sakai Magara, Hashiura Haruko, Kutsumi Fusako, Yamakawa Kikue, Tanno Setsu, Takizawa Mii, Ikeda Seki, Sato Tsugi, and Yamashiro Tomoe. The first three names and the last belong to anarchists, communists, socialists, and nihilists who left behind a text that was both sizable and noteworthy enough to merit an entire section of its own. The fourth, Sakai Magara, to the seventh, Yamakawa Kikue, all contributed to the Seitō (Bluestocking) literary magazine and formed an active part of the Sekirankai (Red Wave Society), a socialist women's group that formed in response to police blocking of membership in the larger Japanese Socialist Federation. The eighth, Tanno Setsu, to the eleventh, Satō Tsugi, in contrast to the largely middle class women that preceded them, were all involved in various unionization activities in the factories and on tenant farms. Of all of the pieces included, it is no surprise that I found Kanno Sugako's "Reflections on the Way to the Gallows," the context of which is easy to interpret, one of the strongest of the bunch. I also found Kaneko Fumiko's "The Road to Nihilism" to be an especially powerful piece, both in the blunt clarity of her activist knowledge developed through experiences rather than theory texts as well as the fact that, after ripping up the certificate of execution reprieve given to her by a government official, she ended her own life rather work the rest of it in prison. Last, but certainly not least, is Yamashiro Tomoe's "The World of the Stars", a slightly fictionalized (she changes the names) recounting of the years she and her husband spent in separate prisons together, interspersed with the letters they carefully navigated the censors to send to each other, flashbacks to their individual lives and eventually shared development of political consciousness, and intimations of a future where he would die in prison in 1945 and she would leave prison after WWII. I'm not overstating things when I say that the narrative structure, the detail, the vivid imagery of the cells, the factories, the springtime transformation of the prison grounds at the very end of the tale, and everything else would make for a quality film in the right hands. Given the subject material, I imagine it's more likely to be picked up by indie productions than anything else, but stranger things have happened.

Slowly but surely, I'm finishing up the works started during Women in Translation Month 2020 and changing over to less concentrated literary pursuits. This was definitely one of the more sensational pieces read during that time, and I can just imagine some rando on the Internet getting pissingly angry over not being able to comment on this review with "You're on the side of people who wanted to assassinate others?!? How dare you!!!!!" and all that liberal hegemonying that legally strips people of every peaceful way to defend against state enacted assault murder and then throws a tantrum when destruction of property and key authority figures proves, time and time again, to be the most effective, and often most essential, survival mechanism of the people in the war against capitalist/fascist (it's pre WWII Japan, people who think dictionary definitions trump critical observations of lived experiences) bureaucracies and military industrial complexes. Fortunately for me, more than one of the narratives this work contains painstakingly lays out the reasons for each women's commitment to their respective causes, which will keep the armchair critics trapped in their mutually assured Twitter cancellations long enough for the protesters on the streets to get some real work done. All in all, this is no introductory piece to pretty much all of the topics covered by this work, but you don't have to be an expert to revel in this works by brave, critically aware, committed, and revolutionary women who faced police agitation, prison terms, and fascist executions both secretly enacted in foreign countries and publicly conducted by popular appeal in pursuit of their belief that women are people, poor people are people, and there are things more important than dying like a dog in the service of a government that treats you as subhuman. It's been a long time since the days before WWII, and much of what has been written here has been forgotten (or suppressed) by the general knowledge base that thinks it knows something about humanizing revolution. Might be good for a great deal of the louder folks to read up on this or something else like it (e.g. something queerer would be nice cause I refuse to believe that wasn't happening to some extent) and get a sense of what really went down in history, yes?

"I was afraid that the supporters of the emperor and champions of patriotism might dig up my corpse and hack it to bits. I did not want to look too shabby when this happened."

-Kanno Sugako, written six days before she was executed for plotting to assassinate the emperor

P.S. The more I read about anarchist/communist/socialist work outside of the US/Europe, the more I'm rather fed up with how little attention Emma Goldman paid to such in her autobiography, but that doesn't mean I can't make use of her material when it is highly appropriate to do so.

[T]here had never been an ideal, however humane and peaceful, which in its time had been considered "within the law."

[Chelsea Szendi · Rating 4 out of 5]

Important primary materials on women figures who often get dropped from social, cultural, and intellectual histories of modern Japan. In a discipline where Kotoku Shusui remains the name invoked in narratives on the Great Treason Incident (while Kanno Suga' testimony is where the meat is), this is a necessary work. Now, if only we could construct a history of radical critique in Japan that synthesizes men and women. After all, many were intimate (oh yes, very intimate) comrades at the time.

Probably an incredible resource for teaching.

[Kylee Ehmann · Rating 3 out of 5]

These were interesting and important primary sources, but unfortunately I had a hard time maintaining interest. I’d get into one woman’s story and then it would be done and gone. I would say it’s a good starting point and the translation is really good, but is strongly recommend reading the memoirs of each woman themselves if you have time.

[Daniel Burton-Rose · Rating 4 out of 5]

Rich use of primary sources to allow the voices of early twentieth century anarchist and social martyrs to be heard again.

[Laura Hoffman Brauman · Rating 3 out of 5]

This read had me delving solidly into a history that I knew nothing about. MIkiso Hane looks at the stories of women who worked for social rights - for women, for the poor, and for the labor class - in Japan from the early 1900’s to WWII. The introduction set me up well with the basics I needed to understand the context of the issues in Japan at this time. In each chapter, he gives you the overview of the individual woman’s story and then turns the pages over to a translation of either her own memoir or the oral history captured by others. In each case, you get to hear her voice and her description of her thoughts, beliefs, and situation. Not surprisingly, at times these stories intersected where women had worked together in the Socialist or Communist movements and at other times, the stories of one generation had inspired the next. While not every woman profiled went to the gallows, each had their life significantly impacted by their determination to seek out a better life and to speak up on issues that believed in. I learned so much reading this book.

[Enrique Mora Roás · Rating 4 out of 5]

Un libro necesario que comete algún error conceptual.

Hane está obsesionado con el matriarcado e introduce el libro así. También, como bien dice Helene Raddeker, asumir como verdaderas las palabras de señores relacionados con las autoras es engañoso en el caso de Kanno Sugako.

Con todo, las traducciones son geniales, son necesarias y son de una profundidad y variedad que admiro mucho. Más sabiendo que este libro tiene décadas encima.

[Jamie Farney · Rating 5 out of 5]

Truly thankful to read this book and the memoirs of the woman it's about. A good historical read. More focused on the feminist rallying during pre war Japan than the details of the socialist movement, but still gives good background on both subjects. This is a great book on feminism, for the themes are presented through human experience and storytelling versus cold philosophy.

[Mike · Rating 5 out of 5]

A fascinating look at the struggles of people with true conviction and spirit. The causes that these women championed were noble, and many of the issues addressed in their writings are problems that still afflict countries in the twenty-first century (including the US). The deeply personal nature of many of the writings that the author translated made for a great read.

Shortly after starting the book, I wished I knew a bit more about Japanese history before I began, especially the Meiji Restoration and the decades leading up to that. But one or two Google searches helped me understand the historical context enough to fully appreciate the book. And the book was an enjoyable backdrop for learning a bit about Japanese history in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century.

[Andrew · Rating 4 out of 5]

Had kinda figured imperial Japan wasn't a great place to be an anarchist or a communist but the severity of repression detailed here - and these women's perseverance in the face of it - is just astounding. Grim but powerful stuff.

[Zoe]

Excellent!

[Richard · Rating 3 out of 5]

I suspect that the impetus for Reflections arose in the context of the research Hane did to write Peasants, Rebels, and Outcasts which was published in 1982. Ie, he probably came across stories about and by many of these women and decided, with some more time and effort, to publish this collection of their memoirs and/or the recollections of others about them in 1988.

The author deserves praise for many elements in this book. First, a 28 page Introduction provided a succinct but still pretty comprehensive historical overview of the social and cultural dynamics in which Japanese women found themselves in the late 19th century early 20th century. This allowed readers to put the chapters describing the heroic and oftentimes tragic efforts to find ‘equality and independence’ by the women depicted into a clear context.

Second, Hane also introduced each woman or movement they were involved with some general information.

Third, he gathered and integrated information from a very wide array of mostly primary sources written in Japanese into well organized chapters each of which focused on a particular aspect of the attempts at social change which these women made.

Fourth, as one would hope for in a book written by an academic scholar there are references in the narrative and 14 pages of endnotes. While there is no bibliography, the sources in the notes are demarcated clearly enough for readers to follow up on should they wish to.

That is not to say that Reflections is without flaws. There were so many references to people and places I did not know that it was challenging to follow at times.

Although the translations were well done, the quality of the writing by the women was variable. More specifically, some of their recollections were rambling or redundant.

Gradually, and more importantly, the stories of the women’s struggles became quite distressing to read. How many times must one learn of the intense social and legal pressures, which included arrests, torture, incarceration and in one case execution?

Thus, I found myself skimming the last few chapters because it was more information than I wished to know. Those readers with a greater tolerance than I have and/or with a deeper interest in these particular women might not do that.

[John Fitzgerald · Rating 3 out of 5]

The book provides excellent primary source material of a time and perspective that is maybe not very well known, so for that reason, it was really fascinating.
The individual voices are unfortunately cut off too soon, and the book seems to lack a unifying structure.
Read to the end, though, because the pay-off comes from the piece by Yamashiro Tomoe.

[Leah Smith · Rating 5 out of 5]

A rare look into the socialist movement in Japan in the early twentieth century and the women who went o prison or even gave their lives for their beliefs.

[Ava Bipes · Rating 5 out of 5]

Wonderful poignant writing depicting the relatable struggles of being a woman in a patriarchal society paired with the fighting for one’s beliefs. An amazingly devastating read.

[Denise · Rating 4 out of 5]

Fascinating look at female activists in prewar Japan, including short portraits of each subject as well as excerpts from their writings, allowing their own voices to be heard.