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A Century of Anarchy

After the Roman Empire reached its peak in the 2nd century, the barbarian pressure on the borders and the plague of the end of the century cast a shadow on the future. The 3rd century is tumultuous, especially the period between 235 and 284 AD, recalled as « military anarchy ». This is the setting for « The Legend of Valentine », which takes place in 268 AD.

During these years the imperial seat is as unstable as ever. In almost fifty years more than 20 emperors succeeded, some of them being in power for only a handful of months. The senate loses even more power, while the political power is held hostage by the military, as the army and the praetorian guard raise and overthrow emperors.

In such a time of turmoil, the central power struggles to maintain control over the enormous territory of the empire. Ambitious individuals take advantage of the state’s weakness to seize control of entire provinces that become detached from the empire. It’s the case of the Gallic Empire, an independent political entity formed by the provinces of Gaul and adjacent areas ruled by the Roman general Postumus from 260 to 274 AD. Or the Palmyrene Empire, a kingdom that rules over the provinces of Syria, Arabia, Egypt and part of Asia Minor, with Queen Zenobia as its leader. These kingdoms don’t seek independence for ethnic reasons but rather emerged due to a weak central power that could not establish stable governance over its territory or provide protection from external threats.

Barbarians at the Borders

During the 3rd century, the raids from the barbarians in the empire multiply. In the North-West, the Germanic tribes of Goths, Heruli and other people become more and more aggressive. Even Italy isn’t safe anymore and the legions have a hard time containing the invasions. Then, in 251 AD, the unthinkable happens: Emperor Decius is killed in the battle of Abrittus against the Goths, becoming the first emperor to die in battle against a foreign enemy.

But the troubles affect not only the Northern borders; in the East the Sasanian Empire poses a continuous threat. After several Persian incursions into the Roman Empire, Emperor Valerian gathers the army to confront them on the battlefield. In 260 AD, the armies of the two empires clash in the battle of Edessa. Something terrible happens, even worse than the unprecedented death of Decius. The Roman army is defeated and captured, along with the emperor. It has never happened before that a Roman emperor is taken hostage by the enemy. Valerian will never come back to Rome and spend the rest of his life as a prisoner in Persia. His son, Emperor Gallienus, takes over the throne and is ruling the empire when our story begins.

Persecutions against Christians

The ongoing political and military turmoil is deeply impacting society, leading to increased feelings of insecurity. In an effort to restore unity, the emperors seek to rally their people around shared values, placing particular emphasis on religion. There’s no room for ambiguity: everyone is expected to demonstrate unwavering loyalty to the empire by honouring the traditional gods, who are believed to safeguard Rome’s prosperity and security.

For Christians, a time of trouble and pain begins. Even if intolerance and sporadic violence existed already in the previous centuries, it’s in the 3rd century that the persecutions reach their peak. The first systematic persecution happens under Decius in 250 AD when a law mandates that every citizen in the empire make sacrifices to the gods and the emperor. The edict introduces a new practice in the Roman tradition by establishing authorities to oversee the ritual and issue certificates to the attendees.

In 257 and 258 AD, Emperor Valerian orders all Christians to publicly renounce their faith and expels from the Senate those who declared themselves as such. Those who refuse to obey face confiscation of property and death by decapitation. During these years, also the pope in Rome and bishops in Spain and Africa were killed.

Divided Souls

Sacrificing to the pagan gods holds a strong political meaning as it demonstrates loyalty to the government. Yet, for Christians, it means rejecting the Christian God.

The suffering of the believers is worsened by the accusation of being enemies of Rome. At the time, the Christian faith is portrayed by pagans as a superstitio, a foolish and extremist belief that threatens the empire. However, most Christians are loyal Roman citizens who respect the emperor and are part of Roman culture. Suffice it to know that at the beginning there are no special garments for priests, who celebrate mass wearing the toga, just like pagan priests.

What to do? Christians have to choose between life or faith, obey the law or remain true to their belief. An internal conflict that affects also Valentine.

The fight of a man for faith and love

The 3rd century is a time of political, military, social and religious upheavals that would challenge everyone, even a man remembered as a saint.

Saint Valentine is a figure shrouded in mystery; historical records about him are sparse and often contradictory, making it hard to pinpoint exactly when he lived or what events shaped his life. « The Legend of Valentine » takes advantage of the gaps in the sources, weaving a fictional narrative that reflects the challenges faced by people in that turbulent era.

In the novel, Valentine is a brave and loyal soldier of the Roman army, a pagan man who is forced to confront his beliefs after reuniting with an old love, a Christian woman. As enemies threaten the empire both from outside and inside, Valentine must fight for his life and protect what he cares about the most. His journey towards a new life becomes even more difficult due to the rise of power of a man seeking revenge against him, endangering everything Valentine has ever loved and forcing him to question his values and beliefs.

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The origin of the Roman religion

Roman traditional religion was polytheistic, involving hundreds of gods, goddesses, and minor deities. These divinities were associated with the sky, similar to the beliefs of other Indo-European cultures such as the Greeks, Gauls, and Germans. There were also a few divine entities associated with the underground, remnants of older Mediterranean cults.

From the start, Roman religion was a blend of elements from various cultures, primarily Italian. The Etruscans had a significant influence on shaping Roman religious practices, with many rituals and methods of divination originating from Etruscan traditions. For example, when Roman magistrates needed to seek the will of the gods they would consult priests trained in analyzing the flight patterns of birds or examining the entrails of sacrificed animals, both of which were of Etruscan origin.

Interactions with the Greek world also impacted Roman religion, as traditional deities became more closely associated with their Greek counterparts. However, the Roman religion was not a copy of the Greek one; Romans sought similarities with other religions as was common among polytheistic cultures. Furthermore, Romans had a unique practice for assimilating foreign deities known as evocatio.

More the gods, more the prosperity

Evocatio, meaning “summoning away”, consisted in inviting the gods of the enemy to join the Roman side. In return, these gods were granted a temple in Rome and revered with great honors. The evocatio was employed during wars, but under the empire, it also served to officially integrate the gods from new provinces into the Roman pantheon.

The Roman mindset always sought to integrate potentially threatening elements, rather than eliminating them, by adapting them to Roman culture and placing them under state control. Even if sometimes it didn’t work as well as usual – such as with Christianity.

A state religion

The Roman religion was quite different from what we usually think of as a religion. It had very little to do with faith and morality and a lot with social practices. Indeed, religio in Latin means « ritual ». Roman religion mainly consisted of a set of ceremonies and rituals aimed at ensuring the safety, peace, and prosperity of the Roman state.

Religion and politics were closely linked. There was not even a distinct class of priests, since those who practiced public rituals were in general magistrates. Indeed, one of the primary responsibilities of the government was to ensure the favor of the gods through specific and repeated rituals. The connection was not between the god and the individual but between the gods (or god) and the community.

This way, every state-related event was seen as being influenced by the will of the gods, for better or for worse. When the Roman army won it meant that the gods were satisfied and supported Rome; when a military clash or a plague happened, the magistrates had to understand why the gods were angry – and how to appease them (usually through extraordinary sacrifices of animals and ceremonies). In The Legend of Valentine , the belief that the emperor must ensure the prosperity of the empire by taking care of religious affairs greatly influences the events that affect Valentine and the other characters.

Main Roman Gods and Goddesses

As a polytheistic religion, Roman worship encompassed many gods and goddesses, whose roles and attributes could evolve. Not only did the characteristics of these deities shift over time, but some faded from worship while new ones were introduced into the Roman pantheon. The sheer number of divinities, from major gods to minor deities like nymphs and “genius” spirits, was nearly countless. Each deity had specific attributes and protected a particular aspect of human life or a natural element. Here are some examples.

Jupiter: the king of the gods and ruler of the sky. Along with Juno and Minerva, he formed the Capitoline Triad, embodiment of the Roman greatness. The main temple was on the Capitoline Hill in Rome, the “Temple of Jupiter Best and Greatest on the Capitoline”, where Juno and Minerva were worshipped too.Juno: Jupiter’s sister and wife, the queen of the gods and the most important female deity. Initially the protector of marriage, she later extended her protection to the entire state.Mars: the god of war, with a connection to agriculture too. Mars held a central role in the Roman religion, and as a testament to this, Romulus and Remus, the mythical founders of Rome, were considered his sons.Minerva: Jupiter’s daughter, the goddess of arts and science. Unlike the Greek counterpart Artemis, she wasn’t a warrior deity, but rather a political one, in charge of the protection of the state alongside Jupiter and Juno.Venus: goddess of love. Venus holds great significance in the Roman pantheon, as legends have it that she is the mother of Aeneas, the hero tasked by the gods to found Rome. The gens Julia, the family of Julius Caesar, claimed descent from Aeneas’s son Julo/Ascanius, meaning they traced their lineage back to the goddess Venus.

Besides the Roman deities, new gods from the East gained popularity during the empire.

Isis: originally an Egyptian goddess, in the Greek-Roman world she’s revered as a caring and compassionate deity who protects women and marriage.Mithra: an Indo-Iranian divinity, Mithra was worshipped as a Sun god and gained widespread popularity among soldiers in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. At one point, Mithraism was so prevalent that it rivalled Christianity as the most successful alternative religion to the traditional one.The decline of the traditional religion

The Roman religion was meant to provide safety to the state but didn’t offer solace to the people. When Romans faced pain, troubles or doubts, they couldn’t find comfort in the traditional gods, as they were considered detached and uncaring about the lives of individuals. The meaning of life had to be researched in philosophy, not religion.

However, by the 3rd century AD, philosophy alone was no longer enough. Only the elite had access to it, and more and more people felt scared and lost as their world seemed under attack. They needed explanations and hope to carry on with their lives. That’s how new cults such as Mithraism and Christianity began to spread.

Christianity grew so much that emperors and the political elite started to perceive it as a threat to the state. Persecutions began against those who refused to sacrifice to the traditional gods, and later targeted the Church as a whole, killing its leaders and confiscating its property. Something that the characters in the The Legend of Valentine find out for themselves.

Despite these efforts, the persecution failed. Christianity proved resilient enough to withstand the trials of the 3rd and early 4th centuries, continuing to expand until it became the dominant religion in the empire. By 380 AD, with the Edict of Theodosius, Christianity was declared the only officially sanctioned faith, while the traditional Roman religion was outlawed.

What does it mean « pagan »?

Ancient Romans didn’t call themselves « pagan ». They didn’t even have a word to define their faith, as it was more of a set of social practices centered around their community. In ancient sources, the term Romana religio, « Roman religion », is used, and no terms identified their believers, who were simply known as « Romans ».

So, how did the term “pagan” come about? Pagan comes from the Latin word pagus, « village ». Literally, pagans are the people who live in small villages. Indeed, the word “pagan” began to be used by Christians in the 4th and 5th centuries AD, when Christianity had become the majority religion and polytheistic worship was largely confined to remote areas where the influence of the empire was weaker.

In The Legend of Valentine, to avoid anachronisms in the dialogues, the term “pagan” is never used. Instead, expressions like “traditional religion” are preferred. However, the term “pagan” is maintained in the narrative to provide clarity for readers and ensure they understand the reference.

The post Who Were the Pagans? appeared first on Sheldon Collins.

The Roman Empire Under Attack

In the third century, significant shifts occurred beyond Rome’s borders. In Germany, tribal groups began merging into larger confederations like the Alamanni, who posed a serious threat along the Rhine and Danube frontiers. Beyond the Danube, a new enemy emerged: the Goths, a coalition of tribes migrating from the north alongside those already living on the open plains of Europe. Raids on Roman cities became more frequent, and piracy resurfaced in the Mediterranean after a long absence.

A major change also occurred in Persia, where the Sasanian Empire overthrew the Parthians, creating a centralized and militarily powerful state that became a formidable adversary for Rome in the East.

These external threats were compounded by internal instability. Emperors were frequently overthrown, and military coups became common. Meanwhile, the Gallic Empire in the West and the Palmyrene Empire in the East declared independence, fracturing Rome’s control over its territories. Forced to abandon difficult-to-defend regions, such as the Agri Decumates (modern southwestern Germany) and Dacia (modern Romania), the empire struggled to maintain its borders and concentrated on strengthening its core defenses.

How the Roman Army Changed

As the world changed, so did the Roman army. The empire shifted from an expansionist approach typical of the first and second centuries to a more defensive stance in the third, setting the stage for military reforms that would culminate in the fourth century.

Previously, legions were stationed along high-risk borders. By the third century, however, every frontier was vulnerable, and Rome had no reserve forces within the empire to counter sudden attacks. In response, the leadership established a more flexible, mobile force. Instead of moving entire legions, smaller units, or vexillationes, were quickly deployed to trouble spots, while stable, smaller units remained stationed at fortresses.

Another major shift was the growing importance of cavalry. Separated from the legions to operate independently, cavalry units increased nearly sixfold. These highly mobile units could detach as vexillationes to support armies across the empire, providing Rome with a faster response to threats.

New Generals for a New Army

The Legend of Valentine opens during the reign of Emperor Gallienus, who made significant changes that would transform the Roman command structure. Previously, command of legions was reserved for the senatorial class, while the equestrian class (equites) led cavalry and auxiliary units, often including non-Roman soldiers. This equestrian class, comparable to today’s wealthy business and managerial elite, gained influence as their generals became more experienced and respected.

In a surprising move, Emperor Gallienus decreed that legions would no longer be commanded by senatorial officials (legatus legionis) but by equestrian officers (praefectus legionis), marking the end of senators in military command roles. This shift prioritized experience over social rank and helped to professionalize the army.

Change in Weapons and Equipment

The Roman army’s structure evolved in response to new threats, with significant changes to weapons and armor. By the fourth and fifth centuries, Roman soldiers would resemble medieval knights more than the classical legionnaires of earlier Rome.

Battle tactics also adapted. In the third century, Roman soldiers fought in tight formations using long spears for thrusting. The javelin (pilum) remained in use but was no longer the primary weapon. After the initial clash, soldiers drew their spatha, a longer sword than the traditional gladius, and protected themselves with large oval shields (scutum).

Armor design changed, too. The iconic plate armor, lorica segmentata, common in previous centuries, was replaced by chain mail (lorica hamata) and scale armor (lorica squamata) by the end of the third century. Rome’s elite heavy cavalry, known as cataphracts, adopted similar full-body scale or lamellar armor to match the heavily armored Sasanian cavalry.

Valentine at War

In The Legend of Valentine, Collins brilliantly uses Valentine and the cast of characters to explore and reflect the sweeping transformations of the Roman Empire in the third century. Much like a vivid portrayal of the era itself, the novel captures the deep tensions, shifting loyalties, and existential struggles of a world on the brink of change. Through Valentine’s journey, readers are invited to experience the strain of an empire facing relentless threats, internal fractures, and evolving military strategies.

Collins’ characters embody the very issues that defined the era, from the weight of political instability to the personal toll of an empire struggling to redefine itself. Valentine’s courage and loyalty are tested by the same forces that reshaped Rome: the rising importance of cavalry, the changing command structure, and the constant threat to the borders. This layered storytelling makes The Legend of Valentine not just a historical novel but a remarkable reflection on the resilience needed to endure such turbulent times.

In Valentine’s world, love and faith emerge as counterpoints to violence and betrayal, helping him navigate a path forward in a chaotic landscape. By weaving these universal themes into the lives of his characters, Collins creates a vivid and multifaceted homage to third-century Rome—a setting that is rarely depicted, given the difficulty of capturing it accurately. Through his thoughtful narrative, Collins brings to life the human side of an empire in turmoil, making The Legend of Valentine a story that continues to resonate through its compelling historical realism.

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